Table 1 Operationalization of variables

Perceived performance anxiety

The degree to which an individual believes that AI-based tools and their features exhibit pervasive technological uncertainties.

Sarin, Sego [17]

Perceived communication barriers

The degree to which an individual feels that AI devices may reduce human aspects of relations in the treatment process.

Lu, Cai [18]

Perceived social biases

The degree to which a person believes that data used in the AI devices may lead to societal discrimination to a certain patient group (e.g., minority groups).

Reddy, Allan [19]

Perceived privacy concerns

The extent to which individuals concern about how AI-based devices collect, access, use, and protect their personal information

Stewart and Segars [20]

Perceived mistrust in AI mechanisms

The degree to which an individual believes that AI models and AI-driven diagnostics and recommendations in health care are still not trustworthy.

Luxton [21]

Perceived unregulated standard

The extent to which an individual believes that regulatory standards and guidelines to assess AI algorithmic safety are yet to be formalized.

Cath [22]

Perceived liability issues

The extent to which an individual is concerned about the liability and responsibility of using AI clinical tools.

Laï, Brian [10]

Perceived risks

The extent to which an individual believes that, in general, it would be risky for patients to use AI-based tools in health care.

Bansal, Zahedi [23]

Perceived benefits

The extent to which an individual believes that AI-based tools can improve diagnostics and care planning for patients.

Lo, Lei [24]

Intention to use AI-based tools

The extent to which an individual is willing to use AI-based services for diagnostics and treatments.

Turja, Aaltonen [11]