Table 1 Characteristics of markets by HIO presence and level of hospital participation

Number of Markets

469

171

298

298

Categorical Variables

n(%)

n(%)

n(%)

P-value

Mean (SD)

P-value

Number of Hospitals

< 0.001

< 0.001

 Low (1–4)

175 (37%)

106 (62%)

69 (23%)

58% (32)

 Moderate (5–8)

128 (27%)

36 (21%)

92 (31%)

41% (24)

 High (9+)

166 (35%)

29 (17%)

137 (46%)

47% (25)

 Total

469

171

198

Hospital Competition (HHI)

< 0.001

0.33

 Non-Competitive (0.46–1.00)

127 (27%)

67 (39%)

60 (20%)

59% (32)

 Moderately Competitive (0.25–0.45)

166 (35%)

62 (36%)

104 (35%)

45% (26)

 Highly Competitive (0.00–0.24)

176 (37%)

42 (25%)

134 (45%)

43% (20)

 Total

469

171

298

For-Profit Hospital Marketshare

0.003

 < 0.001

 Low For-Profit Marketshare (0–57%)

357 (76%)

117 (68%)

240 (81%)

34% (34)

 High For-Profit Marketshare (> 57%)

112 (24%)

54 (32%)

58 (19%)

18% (18)

 Total

469

171

298

No. of EHR Vendors

< 0.001

< 0.001

 Low (1–2)

141 (30%)

21 (12%)

120 (40%)

55% (32)

 Moderate (3–4)

146 (31%)

45 (26%)

101 (34%)

44% (25)

 High (5+)

182 (39%)

105 (61%)

77 (26%)

44% (19)

 Total

469

171

298

Vendor Competition (HHI)

< 0.001

0.35

 Non-Competitive (0.63–1.00)

144 (31%)

76 (44%)

68 (23%)

57% (31)

 Moderately Competitive (0.38–0.62)

162 (35%)

57 (33%)

105 (35%)

46% (25)

 Highly Competitive (0.00–0.37)

163 (35%)

38 (22%)

125 (42%)

42% (20)

 Total

469

171

298

Alternative HIE Approach (%)

 No (0–49% of hospitals on Epic)

256 (55%)

135 (79%)

121 (41%)

< 0.001

44% (27)

< 0.001

 Yes (50–100% of hospitals on Epic)

213 (45%)

36 (21%)

177 (59%)

49% (24)

 Total

469

171

298

Continuous Variables

Mean (SD)

Mean (SD)

Mean (SD)

P-value

Coefficient (SE)

P-value

Number of HSAs

6 (6)

5 (4)

6 (6)

0.018

0.16 (0.23)

0.46

% HIO Participation

30 (30)

0 (0)

47 (25)

< 0.001

% Hospital Participation in Patient Centered Medical Home and/or Accountable Care Organizations

27 (27)

17 (26)

33 (25)

< 0.001

0.003 (0.001)

< 0.001

% Revenue Shared Risk Programs

1 (4)

1 (3)

2 (4)

0.062

0.12 (0.33)

0.72

% Inpatient Days Medicare

52 (21)

53 (15)

51 (9)

0.088

0.18 (0.16)

0.25

% Inpatient Days Medicaid

19 (9)

18 (10)

19 (8)

0.066

0.32 (0.19)

0.10

Hospital Beds per 1000 residents

24 (31)

15 (16)

29 (36)

< 0.001

−0.09 (0.04)

0.03

FTE Hospital Staff per 1000 residents

164 (197)

98 (91)

202 (229)

< 0.001

−0.01 (0.01)

0.12

Percentage of Hospitals in Urban Settings

62 (35)

46 (39)

72 (29)

< 0.001

−0.04 (0.05)

0.50

Number of Physicians (Weighted County Average)

409 (769)

260 (737)

495 (775)

0.001

0.00 (0.00)

0.65